In an attempt to control the environmental problems posed by plastic shopping bags, the South Africa government combined elements of regulation with a levy per bag, similar to that applied by the Irish.

Charging for bags commenced in May 2003 with a fixed nominal price of 46 rand cents for 24-l bags across all retailers, which was subsequently lowered. The levy charged had only short run success. Over time, the effectiveness of the levy has continued declining despite its comprehensive application at checkout points.

Policy makers in the People's Republic of China have been experimenting with new approaches to environmental management, resulting in a wide array of policy and program innovations under the broad heading of eco-compensation.

Economic growth has multiplied the environmental challenges faced by the People's Republic of China but has also created opportunities, by increasing available funding for environmental management and conservation.

Whether government has the political will and capacity to control pollution is crucial for environmental outcomes. A vast country such as China, with centralized policymaking but idiosyncratic local implementation of environmental regulations and drastic regional disparities in wealth, raises the question how does the central government stimulate local environmental commitment to accommodate such diversity?

This paper develops a measure of the contribution of biodiversity in enhancing ecosystem performance that is subject to environmental fluctuation.