Restoring tree cover in tropical countries has the potential to benefit millions of smallholders through improvements
in income and environmental services. However, despite their dominant landholding shares in many
countries, smallholders’ role in restoration has not been addressed in prior global or pan-tropical restoration
studies. We fill this lacuna by using global spatial data on trees and people, national indicators of enabling
conditions, and micro-level expert information. We find that by 2050, low-cost restoration is feasible within 280,