Environmental compensation (EC) aims at addressing environmental losses due to development projects and involves a need to compare development losses with compensation gains using relevant metrics. A conceptual procedure for computing no net loss is formulated and used as a point of departure for a comparative analysis of metrics used by five Swedish municipalities as a part of their EC implementation in the spatial planning context of detailed development plans.

For smallholder subsistence farmers, it is difficult to undertake adequate ex-ante strategies to prepare for shocks. These households are forced to attempt multiple ex-post coping strategies such as consuming less preferred food, limiting food diversity and reducing the size of meals. The literature on consumption has generally overlooked the potential impact of post-shock consumption adjustment on nutritional deprivation.